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A Textbook of Legal Studies for Class XII In the last few decades, India has not only showcased itself as the world’s largest democracy but also exhibited the resilience of its institutions and the fortitude of its governance benchmarks. As India pursues a leadership position in the world community, the need for a rule-of-law society has become a necessary pre-condition. A compliant and law-abiding citizenry alone can build the requisite ecosystem for a nation to surge ahead. This calls for a greater legal literacy amongst its masses to enhance their understanding of public affairs as well their entitlements and duties as citizens. In the long run, this can also potentially eradicate the ethics deficit in society. Structured training in law not only helps the youth challenge their thought process and nurture analytical and negotiation skills but also prepares them for myriad opportunities and exciting career options. No wonder, in the last few years, apart from offering the traditional career in litigation, the law has established itself into fields like public service, academics, research, public policy, journalism, and various other emerging streams. To cater to this burgeoning demand for trained legal professionals, India has seen a tremendous growth of institutions like the National Law Universities and many private universities offering law courses, in addition to the expansion of the existing facilities. Central Board of Secondary Education’s decision to introduce ‘Legal Studies’ as an elective subject, in the year 2013-14 for the Class XI students and in the year 2014-15 for the Class XII students, could not have come at a better time. It is a testimony to the realisation that the introduction of an important subject like Legal Studies at an early stage can do wonders for the students who plan a career in the field of law. Even for those who may pursue other careers, their intellectual strength and the problem-solving abilities will be enhanced though the study of law. This book is a humble attempt to make a student’s first interface with the law as a subject an elevating experience. Care has been taken to make the presentation of the text simple and reader-friendly. The various units of the book, while meeting the requirements of the prescribed syllabus, offer comprehensive coverage of the aspects of law that have been covered. Important legal terms have been meticulously explained with examples to help the students develop a clear understanding about them. All relevant cases have been duly cited, and it has been ensured that the text comprises the latest information about the incorporated content. PREFACE Authors are confident that the book shall be extremely useful for the students of Class XII in developing a clear understanding of the various critical facets of law. They can also benefit immensely from the tips given by the authors for preparing for the examinations and scoring well. The book also has the potential to become a foundational text in the hands of those seeking a basic understanding of the Indian legal system. Our sincere thanks to Dr. B.L. Babel, retired District and Sessions Judge and an acclaimed author of innumerable law books, and Dr. Anil Kaushik, former Dean, Faculty of Law, M.G.S. University, Bikaner, and presently, Principal, S.D. Law (P.G.) College, Sri Ganganagar, Rajasthan, for guiding us in the development of the text. Special thanks to Mr. Sanjay Sardana and Mr. Sankalp Sardana of the Manav Mangal Group of Schools for helping us develop a perspective about the students’ expectations from the book. We would like to express our deep gratitude to Prof. Ramesh Arora and Mrs. Priyanka Sapra for their mentoring and consistent motivation in all our endeavours. We are deeply indebted to the publishers, Goyal Brothers Prakashan, particularly Mr. Suresh Goyal and his dedicated team for making this book a reality despite all the impediments posed by the pandemic. Their efforts in enhancing the presentation of the book are sincerely acknowledged. The authors shall also like to register their profound appreciation for the outstanding academic and research environment at the O.P. Jindal Global University, Sonipat, which helped in the conception and development of this book. In particular, the suggestions from a few students turned out to be invaluable in the development of this work, for which the authors shall remain indebted. Human efforts, howsoever ingenuous, are at best attempts seeking excellence and are liable to suffer from infirmities. We look forward to the feedback from our readers and shall be ever so keen to learn from their views and acknowledge the same appropriately. Last but by no reckoning the least, the authors would like to thank all their friends and family members profusely for their encouragement and constant support.